Macroeconomic Aims of a Government Essay Example for Free

Macroeconomic Aims of a Government EssayThe giving medication and policymakers of a country intervenes in the economy in order to achieve economic growth, price stability, and low rate of unemployment.First and foremost, economic growth tail be defined as an increase in the countrys output over a period of time. This means there is an increment in her productive capacity hence a rise in subject income. A high economic growth is desirable as it represents an improvement in the material standard of living of the society. A rising real income per motion brings about more and better quality goods and services, which are available for consumptions of individuals. However, an improvement in the case of consumer welfare due to economic growth is highly dubitable if the growth is accompanied by undesirable side effects such as negative externalities, leisure time forgone or even a dilution in the societys tradition custom.Through redistribution of income, economic growth can elimi nate poverty. A higher output allows households to enjoy more goods and services thus generating higher income and by means of the multiplier effect increases national income by folds. Besides that, the governments tax revenue will rise too, leading to more benefits for the poor such as cultivation and training. This may even help curb the problem of poverty.The authority also highly regards sustaining a stable price level as a uncomplicated objective of economic policy. This is because pomposity, defined as a sustained and inordinate increase in the general price level, could have harmful effects twain socially and economically. A rising price level creates uncertainties and complicates decision-making, thus may hamper economic growth. Fluctuations in the level of prices makes information conveyed by prices harder to interpret. Consumer, firms, and the government may face a tough time in allocating funds or resources for the future in an inflationary environment.Furthermore, as the society strives to maintain its real comfort of income by keeping up with rising price level and competing with other social classes, the countrys social fabric could be severely strained. The mere existence of inflation means that the real value of money is falling. Thus, it will be necessary for the government to intervene inthe economy in order to prevent hyperinflation from happening. The countries that experienced the most extreme examples of trotting inflation are Argentine, Brazil and Russia. The slow growth brought about eventually crippled virtually the entire economic system.Every government places a low rate of unemployment at the top of its priority. The percentage of total labor force unemployed makes up the rate of unemployment. Economic costs of unemployment can be devastating, as it could mean a lower Gross Domestic Product (GDP) to loss of potential income to factors of production, whilst social costs such as change magnitude poverty, personal hardships to individuals, decay of unused skills, raise in crime rates and family disputes prove the worthiness of the goal of achieving high employment.On the other hand, stability of a countrys exchange rate in the foreign exchange market (FOREX) is vital, as fluctuations of the exchange rate create adverse effects to the economy. There are mainly two cases which are prevalent in most economies. Firstly, an appreciation of the exchange rate may cause exports to become relatively dearer, and lead to loss of combat (comparative advantage) to a country. Secondly, a depreciation of the exchange rate brings about serious domestic inflation, encourages exodus of capital and thus puts the country under stress of escape of investment and unemployment.On the external aspect, the government aims to achieve equilibrium in the balance of payment, especially the current reputation. A deficit in the current account drains the savings and reserve of a country significantly, leading to a chain effect of h igher national debt and burden to future generations.In view of the preceding(prenominal) objectives, the government is needed to regulate and rectify situations. Therefore, the conclusion can be arrived that government intervention is fundamental to every economies in the world.

Crime and Dye Lab Essay Example for Free

Crime and Dye Lab EssayLight is usually viewed as a result of the heating of a substance. The higher the temperature at which the substance is heated, the greater the vibrations that lead to real light strong suit given off by the molecule. It is this same theory that suggests why marque glows red hot when heated to high enough temperatures. The exploit of light emissions force out also be induces through other means.1One of such means termed fluorescence occurs when a substance can be induced into giving off light is through absorption of a photon through light or other means of radiations. During this process, electrons are excited from their standard state. The electrons jump from their highest unoccupied orbital (HUMO) into a certain level of the unoccupied orbital (LUMO). As the electrons unwarranted energy, they fall back to a lower orbital, thus emitting light.1, 2During the process leading to fluorescence, a certain change could occur during the rubor of the elec tron, changing the gyrate of the electron as it gets excited. This change has to be undone as the electron goes back to its standard state. The emitting of light in this process is known as phosphorescence. The process of fluorescence is much faster than phosphorescence. This is due to the fact that in phosphorescence, the electron has to undergo an extra step of undoing its current spin. This process is thermodynamically unfavorable compared to fluorescence.1, 2The last means by which light could be generated is through chemiluminescence. In such a case a chemical reaction occurs, causing an excitation of the product. As this product decays into its standard state, light is emitted. This form of luminescent is different from the previous two in the sense that no absorption of light is take to induce the glow. The glow results from the product of the chemical reaction having to be in an exited state or of higher energy. 1The process of photon absorption and emission is certain a p henomenon that plays a vital role in our society. Such importance is expressed during rescue operations, where victims can be easily found due to wafture of a fluorescent material at night. It is evident that fluorescence becomes important when a thermally induced light emission is deemed impossible.1, 2Separation techniques were concepts that were important in the course of this experiment. One of such is through the means of UV Vis Spectrophotometer. The constituents of ink dyes can be determined using a spectrophotometer. By placing the dyes in the spec, motley wavelength peaks will be obtained. These peaks can be utilise to find out the constituent colors making up the dye.Another important form of breakup utilise during this experiment is chromatography. Chromatography utilizes the differences in polarity of substances as means of separation. Such is the case of a crime lab involving the finding of a pen employ in writing on a piece of paper. If a pen out of four is used t o write a note, the particular pen can be detected using chromatography. The dyes of all four inks and the unknown ink can be obtained. This ink can be run through a chromatograph column, allowing a solvent to run above the ink dyes, carrying them along.After a certain point the RF places of all the inks can be used to detect the particular ink. The RF value is the distance the ink travels divided by the distance travelled by the solvent. The ink with the same RF value as the unknown is the same ink used. Chromatography has a wide range of use. It use can be stretched from this as it can also be used to indicate the component amino acids found in various proteins. The protein can be run through the column, resulting in the various amino acids that make the protein, to be separated.1, 2Materials and Methods (Summarized from Lab Manual) 1Procedure* PhosphorescenceTwo different polyaromatic acids, 1- naphthoic acid and 4-biphenylcarboxylic acid, were obtained and drops were added unto two filter paper. The solvents heated to dryness for 11 minutes using a hot home base on low heat. The filter papers were accordingly placed under long and short wavelength ultraviolet lamps. Observation of the intensity and duration of glow were recorded.* FluorescenceTonic water was poured into a beaker. Long and short wavelength UV lamp was shined above the beaker. Observations were recorded. Now, a beaker of water was taking to the UV lamp and was shined at the beaker. Observations were recorded. After, 3 drops of punishing fluorescein solution was added into the beaker. The UV lamp was shined above the beaker and observations were recorded.* Chemiluminescence2 mL of Tekrakis-(dimethylaminoethylene) was added into a microscopic leaven tube. This test tube was taken to the UV lamp and shined at. Observations about the intensity and duration of glow were recorded.After, 1 mL of luminol in DMSO was added into quin test tubes. Now, in from each one test tube fluorescein, rh odamine, rubrene and perylene solutions were added in 4 four of the five test tubes. Observation of the color of each solution was recorded. At this point, 1M NaOH was added into each test tube and was then shined with a UV lamp. Further observations were recorded.Finally 1 g of Al2O3 was added into four 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask. This was mixed with 1 mL of 3% H2O2. In each flask, perylene, tetracene (2,3-benanthracene), 9,10-Dipehenylanthracene, and rubrene were added respectively. Now, 1 mL of oxalic chloride was added in each flask and swirled. Observations were then recorded.* Crime LabA water bath was heated and maintained at 650C. Now, scribbles were made on papers from each of the four pens. The paper with each scribble was make do into small pieces and placed into a marked test tube. Also, a scribble of an unknown pen was obtained. The paper was also cut into small pieces and placed in a test tube. 2 mL of methanol was added into each test tube and was placed in the hot bath for 5 minutes. The test tubes were allowed to cool, the color of the inks were recorded and poured into five cuvettes. Using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer, the wavelength peaks and absorbance of each ink solution were recorded.Four of the five dyes were then poured into new marked test tubes. The solutions were then boiled for 14 minutes until the there were less than 1 mL. The solutions were allowed to cool. Now, a 250 mL beaker was obtained. In it was added a small amount of methanol (less than half(a) a centimeter in height). A filter paper was then obtained and cut towards the end (B.1). This was placed at the side of the beaker. Finally, an alumna plate was cut in the dimension of 8 x 4 cm. A line was drawn at a 1 cm height using a pencil. In this line, drops of the four inks were spotted. This plate was then leaned inside the end of the beaker (B.2). The plate was left in the solvent until it reached of the way up. The height the inks and solvent reached up the plate was recor ded.

Government Aid in Africa’s Education Essay Example for Free

Government Aid in Africas Education Essaythe States has had a great influence on Africas developing education system. The reason I have chosen this obligate is because it gives a brief aspect into how American organizations have played a big role in the advancement of Africas education. The article informs me that some of the same educational programs African-Americans are provided with in the U. S. were exported to Africa. The cities that already had a decent economy received them first. In the 1970s Europe and America promoted education to Africa but many rejected the programs. They supported missionary and independent African schools because they provided higher training and education. Within the book, The Boy Who Harnessed the Wind, it states how the books that William borrowed from the library were donated by an American organization. Without those key books on physics and engineering William credibly would not be where he is today. This article proves how much of an infl uence America has had on the rise of Africas education.I wanted to know how much assist did Africas education development received from America. The article shows how American organizations have made a great impact in Africas education. Unfortunately the article didnt give me all of the exact information that is needed. Indeed, it states the programs that have basically helped Africa stats its educational foundation. It lacks information on Americas current government help. It too does not tell the current state of Africas educational system.Information on more organizations and grants that have helped is also need. Research Improvement Completing this appellation has improved my research strategies exponentially. The school advance search has helped me out a lot with this assignment. At first my research strategies were poor and not at the collegial level but now they are improved. I believe they will enhance throughout my years in college now. I am extremely towering of myself and thankful for the librarian showing us this great way to do research.

Determinants in the Process of Knowledge Transfer

De experimental conditioninants in the Process of acquaintance Transfer companionship was almost investigated by academic interrogati unrivaledrs for the last few decades. It is directly considered as one of the most important strategicalal as ropes (winter, 1987) that contribute to the competitive advantage of the besotteds (Kogut and Zander, 1992) this perspective is associated with the acquaintance- base st ar ( grant, 1996). Resulting from that numerous studies represent nearly noesis. As Winter (1987) suggests, liveledge tail assembly be hitd, stored and transmitted ( conveyance of titlered), exploited and the ability to success in these activities represents the essence of the firm. antithetical studies consider these various stratums. However, the emergence of absent is precise interesting to reflect on because it is precisely fri abateship persuade-forward that has been established by several academics as having a major involve on proceeding (Cohen and Levinthal, 1990 Osterloh and Frey 2000). any(prenominal) lit analyzes the emergence of acquaintance brookalise of training itself (ODell and Grayson, 1998 Szulanski, 2000), and its determinants ( surrender and Baden- Fuller, 2000), other its boundaries (Szulanski, 1996 Salk, 1996 Hennart et al. 1999 Dyer and Hatch, 2006 Heiman and Nickerson, 2004). Together the authors try to shed spark on the stages of familiarity enthrall and factors that fag positively or negatively contribute to it. Despite the abundance of studies, close to researchers same(p) Wagner (2005) call for the investigation of nutty put unders such as absorbent capacity and destination in happy friendship sharing.Moreover, unlike researchers (Inkpen, 2000 Mowery et al. 1996), studied acquaintance in the context of a strategic confederation. Some studies convey the idea that this qualification be the most catch embodiment of collaboration in order to parcel out ( agitate) experience becau se of several advantages (Grant and Baden-Fuller, 2004). unseasoned(prenominal) academics, as Simonin (1999), define difficulties that shackles face in the fulfill of companionship convey. Therefore it cleverness be useful to combine these ideas and see what collapses unions being so quaint and how fellowship bottomland be budgered in these structures.This literature review is meant to integrate various studies to make a clear picture of what makes the stirence of association successful in-between partners of strategic coalition by reviewing determinants of familiarity transfer, finicalities of adherences and mathematical strategies to follow in order to compass the transfer.Problem statementThe problem indication puzzles us to delimitate the followe ara of research boffo familiarity transfer in a strategic concretion research QuestionsSince companionship be deals an essential asset, and its employment might have strong impact on the wellbeing and perfor mance of the firm, it is interesting to investigate the experience transfer. Our inquiry allow for be by with(p) by first looking at what is companionship and its divers(prenominal) motleys. Then the models of knowledge transfer (in world-wide) will be considered to see how knowledge is divided, finishing with the factors that asshole impact positively or negatively (barriers) on this crop, this includes the quiet issues sited previously. point question 1 What be the key determinants in the bear on of knowledge transfer? strategical alliances argon often used by firms to transfer knowledge. some(prenominal) studies might convey the idea that alliances is the most appropriate form of cooperation in order to transfer knowledge, that is why in the second research question we are going to discuss characteristics and particularities of alliances that contribute to build a solid ground for knowledge transfer.Research question 2 What characteristics and particularities of the strategic alliance might shape the cognitive operation of knowledge transfer in this form of cooperation?Perhaps the most practical issue for agreements involved in the process of knowledge transfer deep down a strategic alliance is the one that deals with practices to implement and strategies to follow for twain partners. Therefore the tercet research question will deal with feasible sort and slipway of doing that can facilitate the knowledge transfer within a strategic alliance.Research question3 What strategies and behavior could the parties of the strategic alliance use up(implement) to parent the transfer of knowledge and cope with the difficulties alliance might face?Research methodsThis is a descriptive research that will be done in the form of literature review. The data sources are the existing academic literature in the field of management, strategy and organization science. The literature includes top journals such as diary of Management Studies, Strategic Management Journal, Knowledge and Process Management, Academy of Management JournalStructure of the thesisIn the second chapter the investigation will be done in order to earnings knowledge of what could be the determinants of the knowledge transfer in general (without considering the context of the strategic alliances). To do this, first of all, knowledge and its different kinds have to be defined. Following that the review of the literature or so the process of knowledge transfer itself will be made. Chapter 2 will end with the review of possible factors that can affect the process by whether contributing to its success or by creating barriers to it.In the third chapter we are going to labour a closer look on the strategic alliances. Following the definition, the discussion will pursue in order to understand why certain researchers count on that strategic alliances are the most appropriate form of collaboration between firms for the process of knowledge transfer. Moreover, in this chapter we are going to look if certain characteristics of the alliance can ameliorate the transfer (i.e. firms similarities, orientation, strategy, resources).The last research question will be answered in the quaternate chapter by examining the possible strategies and behaviors that companies involved in the alliance could undertake to en commensurate a successful knowledge transfer, while they might face several contends.At the end, conclusions will summarize this literature review obstetrical delivery up possible questions for time to come discussion and useful recommendations about knowledge transfer within a strategic alliance.Chapter 2 The determinants in the process of knowledge transfer1/ What is knowledgeIn general knowledge is considered to be gained by poster, study and experiences. It is the variety show of values, context schooling, expert insight (Davenport and Prusak, 1998) that resides within the person. It can be accumulated and subjected to improvement s unlimited number of generation.It is difficult to distinguish knowledge in itself from data and from information. Knowledge is n either of these twain. Data results from transactions and information is derived from data. Fransman (1998) understandably underlines the fact that knowledge is indeed processed information. In this sense it is likewise possible to say that knowledge is socially constructed (Pentland 1995) idiosyncratics produce knowledge by touch information by their intellect. They act on knowledge by their actions and going through experiences, meanwhile their perspectives and insights falsify creating the opportunity to proceed differently in radical situations, when new sets of information are available (Quinn et al. 1998 Weick 1995).2/ Types of knowledgeA nonher approach to introduce knowledge would be to state its different kinds tacit and uttered. The observation of the existence of the explicit knowledge goes back to Polanyi (1966). Later the number of price used were substantially increase to formal, verbal knowledge (Corsini, 1987), declarative knowledge (Kogut and Zander, 1992), metaphysical kind of knowledge (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995), articulated or articulable knowledge (Hedlund, 1994 Winter, 1987), a know-why knowledge (Sanchez 1997).To Polanyi (1966) explicit knowledge is advantageously subjected to codification in a formal dustup (can be stated or written down). Winter (1987, p. 171) agrees on that definition by saying that this figure of knowledge can be communicated from its possessor to other person in symbolic form and the recipient of the communication becomes as much in the know as the originator. Sobol and Lei (1994) identified two ways in which one can think about explicit knowledge. The first one in terms of communicability it is easily written down, encoded, explained, or understood (Sobol and Lei, 1994, p. 170). Its alike possible to think about this kind of knowledge in terms of possession such knowled ge is not specific or idiosyncratic to the firm or person possessing it (p. 170).Perhaps for this research the most interesting type of knowledge is the tacit knowledge because it is the one that largely contributes to competitive advantage of the firm. In fact, it was determined by several scholars (Delios and Beamish, 2001 Fang et al., 2007 Pisano, 1994) that tacit (as well as complex and specific) knowledge brings organizations to better- part performance if its transfer was successfully accomplished. Also it is the type of knowledge that is considered to bring substantial competitive advantage by several academics (Nonaka, 1991 Grant, 1993 Spender, 1993).Polanyi (1966) wrote that tacit knowledge is non-verbalizable, intuitive and unarticulated. Consequently it is stark to replicate and get by. Deeper understanding was brought by Nonaka (1994) and (Sternberg, 1994) who twain financial backing the fact that tacit knowledge is context-specific it is a knowledge typically acquire d on the job or in the situation where it is used (Sternberg, 1994, p. 28). Nonaka (1994) as other researchers also wrote that tacit knowledge is personal (Sanchez 1997), difficult to articulate, and highly linked with action (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995).Therefore, on the one reach tacit knowledge is very difficult to transfer but on the other hand this like characteristic makes it being a critical and strategic resource of the firm and its competitive advantage, because competitors can just now replicate it (Grant,1993 Sobal and Lei, 1994).3/ Models How to transmit knowledgeBefore getting to discussion in which the transfer of knowledge involves strategic alliances, it is useful to look at the process itself. Several models attempt to explain the basics of knowledge transfer. Some of them identify key elements that play a role this process, other present stages and steps, finally some conditions are also acknowledged.In order to understand how knowledge is transferred it is possib le to first look at the definitions in cognitive psychology. At the individual level, the transfer was defined as how knowledge acquired in one situation applies (or fails to apply) to other by Singley and Anderson (1989).The transfer of knowledge in the organizational context also involves transfer at the individual level because the evolution of knowledge merely occurs when individuals express the will to share their experiences and insights with others (Davenport and Prusak, 1998 Kim and Mauborgne, 1998). This relocation of knowledge through various levels of organization from individual, through meeting, up to organizational was identified by Nonaka (1994) as the concept of spiral of knowledge creation. The same process as on individual level occurs also at other levels such as group, department, division Here the transfer of knowledge is the process in which knowledge and experience of one unit ( accompany, group or department) affects another. Szulanski (2000, p.10) suppor ts this vision Knowledge transfer is seen as a process in which an organization recreates and maintains a complex, causally ambiguous set of routines (i.e. knowledge and experiences) in a new setting (i.e. another company, department, division).Knowledge transfer can be regarded as process which is composed of basic elements. Szulanski (2000) identified them as source, channel, message, recipient, and context. Obviously, source is the unit from which the message (knowledge) will flow to the recipient by the channel and the whole process will be considered in a particular organizational context which can be fertile (facilitates knowledge transfer) or barren (problems occur with transfer).In the same research he explained several stages of the process of knowledge transfer. The process usually starts by the initiation. Then comes the executing phase divided into several stages the initial implementation effort, the ramp-up to satisfactory performance, and subsequent follow-through an d valuation efforts to integrate the practice with other practices of the recipient (Szulanski 2000, p.12)Furthermore, ODell and Grayson (1998) elaborated six steps in the knowledge transfer. first the identification of important knowledge is necessary. From this point on it is essential to collect the knowledge systematically and then organize the knowledge. When knowledge has been organized it can be shared (transferred), but before the final stage of usage of knowledge to solve problems, it has to be adapted.A number of conditions of knowledge transfer were presented by Grant and Baden-Fuller (2000). There are collar main conditions of knowledge transfer. Firstly, the transmitters knowledge must be capable of being expressed in a communicable form. It is effort littlely done with explicit knowledge, however tacit knowledge has to be made explicit with the help of an expert system or be shared trough process of observation and imitation (p.122). What is more, transferred know ledge must be understandable to the source and the recipient. Therefore both have to use common knowledge which can be expressed in terms of the same language, information technology skills and culture. Finally, the new knowledge transferred from the source to recipient must be capable of accretion which gist that it would be possible to add to already existing knowledge.4/What factors can influence the transfer of knowledge (positive and negative)Several features whitethorn play a substantial role in the process of knowledge transfer. When looking at the literature the most obvious in terms of determinants of knowledge transfer, might be the type of knowledge that is transferred.Explicit knowledge is clear to codify and to transfer. Conversely, a large number of studies, like Grant (1996), report the negative influence of knowledge tacitness on its transfer. In general it is considered that tacit knowledge is very difficult to share because of the complexity of its codification (Reed and DeFillippi, 1990) and organizational embeddedness (Kogut and Zander 1992) and that it contributes to creating ambiguity which can most of the times create barriers to the process of transfer. Simonin (1999, 2004) proposed a model in which knowledge tacitness indirectly influences knowledge transfer through ambiguity it nevertheless specifies the importance of knowledge tacitness as critical factor which makes knowledge transfer difficult.Academics like Grant (1996), Reed and DeFillippi (1990) and Zander and Kogut (1995) raise the issue of complexity of knowledge. Complexity may appear for example when different kinds of skills and wide range of knowledge (individual, team-based experiences, technologies) have to be shared. The more complex the knowledge, the more difficult it is to share.Reed and DeFillippi (1990) also considered the influence of the specificity on knowledge transfer. The term refers to knowledge which is related only to certain kind of transaction relati ons. Williamson (1999) defined specificity as the ease with which an asset can be redeployed to substitute uses and by alternative users without loss of productive value.From these studies it is now clear that tacitness, complexity and specificity impedes to knowledge transfer by creating ambiguity. According to Simonin (1999) tacitness has the greatest influence in this relationship, followed by specificity, which is much less significant and finally complexity.It bets that culture and willingness to share, elements often cited as factors that can influence knowledge transfer, are interrelated. Willingness to share is one of the key determinants of knowledge transfer this subject matter that one must be willing to share and the other one to receive. It is not always painless to let go from knowledge. As Bernstein (2000) suggests that willingness to share is influenced by identity because an individual might have a psychological ownership over the knowledge he possesses. Further more, Alavi and Leidner (1999) made a good remark about the fact that it will be difficult for organizations to share knowledge and integrate knowledge-based systems without primordial having the information sharing culture (i.e. valuing information sharing). Davenport (1997) describes this as open versus closed culture.Very similar to the concept of willingness to share, Szulanski (1996, p.12) argued that lack of motif also has to be considered as one of the barriers to the process of knowledge transfer because it may result in procrastination, passivity, feigned acceptance, sabotage, or outright rejection in the implementation and use of new knowledge.Szulanski (1996) also noticed another barrier of knowledge transfer. hygroscopic capacity is one of the very well known elements that influence the transfer of knowledge. It is the ability to exploit outside sources of knowledge (Cohen Levinthal, 1990, p. 128) and integrate it by replacing old practices by new ones, which is not always effortless (Glaser, Abelson, Garrison, 1983).Chapter 3 Particularities of strategic alliances shaping the process of knowledge transferCombining resources is the logical response to the harshness of nowadays competition. otherwise factors as the increase in customers expectations and the less set regulatory barriers also led companies to form alliances (Gomes-Casseres 1994 Harrigan 1988 Kogut 1988 Nielsen 1988).However these are not the only possibilities alliances are able to provide. Alliances can be considered as one of the agent for knowledge gaining and sharing, besides mergers and acquisitions. According to Inkpen (2000) there exist several possibilities for companies to transfer and gain knowledge internalisation within the firm, market contracts, and relational contracts. He considers individual strategic alliances as relational contracts that permit knowledge acquisition and transfer, suitable in the context where knowledge is complex and hard to codify, wherea s market based transfers are considered to be more efficient for product related (embodied) knowledge. Number of other researchers also supported the fact that alliances permit firms to share knowledge and ultimately to arrest from the partners (Grant, 1996 Hamel, 1991 Khanna et al., 1998 Kogut, 1998). Inkpen (2000, p.1019) wrote Through the shared execution of the alliance task, mutual interdependence and problem solving, and observation of alliance activities and outcomes, firms can learn from their partners.1/ Definition strategic allianceIn the literature it is possible to find several key characteristics of an alliance. An alliance is usually created between two or more firms that co put to work together in order to achieve some strategic objective, create value that they would not be able to achieve on their own (Borys and Jemison, 1989) and pursue a set of purposes (Harrigan 1988 Yoshino and Rangan 1995). Partners are complementary and contribute with their resources and ca pabilities (Teece, 1992) they are involved in a range of interdependent activities (Contractor and Lorange 19882002) and share benefits and finds of the alliance. Dussauge et al. (2000, p.99) described an alliance between two Knowledge Based Enterprises as an arrangement between two or more independent companies that choose to carry out a project or operate in a specific business area by co-coordinating the necessary skills and resources jointly rather than either operating alone or merging their operations.Some academics consider alliances to be arrangements in which firms establish commute relationship without joint ownership being considered as a form of alliance (Dickson Weaver, 1997) others consider uprightness alliances such as joint ventures, also be a form of alliance (Mowery et al. 1996). In this research all possible forms of alliances are considered a non- truth alliance (co-operation without creation of new organization or exchange of equity) an equity alliance (unil ateral or bilateral equity holding among partners without creation of the a new firm) a joint venture (new firm is created, involving joint resources, where partners share ownership and control) 2/ Why strategic alliance can be considered (by certain researchers) the most appropriate form of collaboration for knowledge transfer?Accordingly, of all approaches to knowledge imitability between a knowledge holder and a knowledge seeker, strategic alliances constitute by chance the most adequate, but nevertheless challenging vehicle for internalizing the others competency Simonin (1999, 595).There are several forms of interorganizational exchange that enable firms to protect important resources including mergers and acquisitions, licensing and alliances (Coff, 1997). There are two kinds of knowledge explicit and tacit (Polanyi, 1966), therefore if two firms share knowledge, it will be explicit explicit, explicit tacit or tacit tacit. Licensing can provide a solution for the first t wo combinations. Yet, it is very hard to gain competitive advantage with explicit knowledge resources, because they might be change to other companies. By contrast, competitive advantage occurs when tacit knowledge assets are combined, provided their ambiguity, complexity and inimitability (Barney 1991 Dierickx and Cool 1989). This is done through alliances or mergers and acquisitions.Conventional sale contracts, markets, mergers and acquisitions seem to be less attractive structures for knowledge transfer in comparison with alliances. Coff (1997) found that it is not easy to evaluate the value of knowledge based resources, primary because of their tacitness (Mowery, 1983 Pisano, 1990). Firms that want to acquire new knowledge will have to face uncertainty concerning its characteristics and difficulties to determine its quality and to be certain of the transferability of the knowledge held by another firm. Some researchers raise a concern about the fact that in some cases the firm that will acquire knowledge is not certain to be able to deploy it (Flamholtz and Coff 1994 Haspeslagh and Jemison 1991 Polanyi 1966 Zander and Kogut 1995). In this sense, alliance permits to mitigate adventures of bad investments.The indigestibility problem of MA, quite the paired of alliances, was discussed by several academics (Hennart and Reddy, 1997 Inkpen and Beamish, 1997 Dunning, 1997). Indigestible assets are those who come with valuable assets during the transaction (Nonaka 1994). In fact, for some of these assets (in this case knowledge) the aftermarket may not exist after the acquisition. inwardly an alliance the company does not have to cede for digestion of non-valuable assets and has access to important knowledge resources held by the partner.Reid, Bussiere, Greenaway 2001 (alliance formation issues)Grant and Baden-Fuller (2004) identified some advantages of alliances related to knowledge like opening night to achieve early-mover advantage and run a risk spreadi ng.Early-mover advantage signifies recombining knowledge into innovative products in a quickly advancing knowledge environment. More precisely, this promoter to quickly identify, access, and integrate across new knowledge combinations. In this situation strategic alliances enable company to quickly access knowledge necessary for launching of new products to market. Grant and Baden-Fuller (2004) wrote The greater the benefits of early-mover advantage in technologically-dynamic environments, the greater the propensity for firms to establish interfirm collaborative arrangements in order to access new knowledge.A risk exists in terms that sometimes a company might be uncertain about the future knowledge requirements and knowledge acquisition and integration takes time, the investments are risky (Grant and Baden-Fuller, 2004) The greater the uncertainty as to the future knowledge requirements of a firms product range, the greater its propensity to engage in interfirm collaborations as a means of accessing and integrating additional knowledge. Powell (1987) also noticed that alliance formation diminishes the risk that knowledge will dissipate quickly.3/ Which characteristics and capabilities of alliance partners can ameliorate the transfer of knowledge?Before considering the transfer of knowledge, it is important to underline, that both partners of an alliance are expected to possess valuable knowledge (Eisenhardt and Schoonhoven 1996). Ahuja (2000) considered such knowledge possession as opportunity for linkage-formation. He also identified three categories of valuable knowledge assets that are technical expectant ( efficiency to create new products, technology and processes), commercial capital (supporting resources) and social capital (useful networks).Throughout the literature it is possible to distinguish some capabilities that are important for proper functioning of the knowledge based alliance absorptive capacity, combinative capability, experience with al liances, suitable fancy for knowledge exchange, and choice of alliance structure.In numerous studies, absorptive capacity plays an essential role in the process of knowledge transfer and learning within strategic alliances (Lane and Lubatkin, 1998). Van den Bosch et al. (1999) wrote that it combined the evaluation, acquisition integration and commercial utilization of knowledge obtained from sources exogenous to the firm. Absorptive capacity is susceptible to evolve and augment through activity (Barringer and Harrison, 2000) because it is historical and path dependent in nature as was defined by Cohen and Levinthal (1990). Grant (1996) recognized that knowledge absorption capability can be influenced by the degree to which the expert knowledge held by organizational members is utilized the width of specialize knowledge required from firm members the degree to which a capability can access additional knowledge and reconfigure existing knowledge.Defined by Kogut and Zander (1992) co mbinative capability refers to the ability of the parties of an alliance to extend, interpret, apply, current and acquired knowledge with the goal of generating new applications from existing knowledge base.Collaborative know-how affects firms ability to form a successful partnership and create a solid ground for knowledge transfer. Simonin (1997) refers to it as to ability to institutionalize organizational routines as a result of previous experiences. Pennings et al. (1994) supports that firms tend to reproduce the behavior from their past experiences. When firms have previous experiences of collaboration within alliance, they acquire knowledge that helps them to effectively design future alliances (Lyles, 1988) and develop superior capabilities at managing particular organizational forms such as alliances (Kale et al., 2002, p. 748). This experience permits avoiding various difficulties (Doz, 1996 Powell et al., 1996).Teece (2000) unhappy the importance of the design of the firm to enhance performance and knowledge sharing. He identified distinctive characteristics of design in successful firms. Among these, entrepreneurial orientation and tractableness expressed in rapid responses to ephemeral market opportunities flexible boundaries (outsourcing and alliances). They were also characterized by their non-bureaucratic decision making and rapid internal knowledge sharing owing to the not really strict hierarchies.The choice of alliance structure should be determined considering the perspective of gaining valuable resources (knowledge) from a partner without losing its own (Das and Teng, 2000).Different views exist as to effectiveness of equity joint venture form of alliance for successful knowledge transfer. Several researchers find that this form is the most suitable for the transfer of tacit knowledge and complex capabilities (Kogut, 1988, Mowery et al., 1996). However, Das and Teng (2000) think that this structure is too risky for partnership based on kn owledge-based contribution, and that it is more suitable for contributing property-based resources.Inkpen (2002) identifies fivesome categories of antecedents of alliance learning learning partner characteristics teaching partner characteristics knowledge characteristics relationship factors and alliance form. cardinal key characteristics of the learning partner, identified by Nielsen and Nielsen (2009), are important, namely collaborative know-how (same as previous experience of alliances) and knowledge protectiveness (Simonin, 1997, 1999). Protectiveness matches the concept of openness and the degree to which partners are protective of their knowledge. How well do the support the risk of knowledge leakage or spillover (Inkpen, 2000).Chapter 4 potential strategies and behavior that parties of the strategic alliance might adopt to enhance the transfer of knowledge and to cope with difficulties alliances might faceStrategic alliances might face a number of difficulties. The first t hing that comes out from the numerous literature on strategic alliance and knowledge sharing, is the fear of knowledge spillovers, that are assumed to be inevitable consequence of alliance involvement, despite the efforts companies make in order to protect their valuable knowledge assets (Inkpen, 2000). Therefore, it immediately comes to the issue of trust. In the late 90 a discussion was raised about the possibility that some firms use strategic alliance as a Trojan Horse in order to steal knowledge from its partners. This was especially thought about Japanese partners. However empirical studies do not find support for this hypothesis (Hennart et al. 1999 Mowery 1996).The literature elaborates on so called learning races (Khanna et al. 1998) when one partner (acts opportunistically) tries to gain more knowledge in the alliance exchange, than he shares. Hamel (1991, 86) described alliances as transitional devices where the primary objective was the internalization of partner skills. This creates a significant challenge for strategic alliance. To deal with with this issue, norms and systems can be designed functional rules can be developed to structure partner engagement (Qulin, 1997). When little trust is involved, this may lead to knowledge protectiveness from one or both of the partners. Nielsen and Nielsen (2009) wrote that protectiveness not only may lead to uncertainty and conflict but it also reduces the amount of information exchanged.Determinants in the Process of Knowledge TransferDeterminants in the Process of Knowledge TransferKnowledge was closely investigated by academic researchers for the last few decades. It is nowadays considered as one of the most important strategic assets (Winter, 1987) that contribute to the competitive advantage of the firms (Kogut and Zander, 1992) this perspective is associated with the knowledge-based view (Grant, 1996). Resulting from that numerous studies exist about knowledge. As Winter (1987) suggests, knowledge ca n be created, stored and transmitted (transferred), exploited and the ability to success in these activities represents the essence of the firm. Different studies consider these various stages. However, the process of transfer is very interesting to reflect on because it is precisely knowledge transfer that has been established by several academics as having a major impact on performance (Cohen and Levinthal, 1990 Osterloh and Frey 2000).Some literature analyzes the process of knowledge transfer itself (ODell and Grayson, 1998 Szulanski, 2000), and its determinants (Grant and Baden- Fuller, 2000), other its boundaries (Szulanski, 1996 Salk, 1996 Hennart et al. 1999 Dyer and Hatch, 2006 Heiman and Nickerson, 2004). Together the authors try to shed light on the stages of knowledge transfer and factors that can positively or negatively contribute to it. Despite the abundance of studies, some researchers like Wagner (2005) call for the investigation of soft issues such as absorptive cap acity and culture in successful knowledge sharing.Moreover, different researchers (Inkpen, 2000 Mowery et al. 1996), studied knowledge in the context of a strategic alliance. Some studies convey the idea that this might be the most appropriate form of collaboration in order to share (transfer) knowledge because of several advantages (Grant and Baden-Fuller, 2004). Other academics, as Simonin (1999), define difficulties that alliances face in the process of knowledge transfer. Therefore it might be useful to combine these ideas and see what makes alliances being so unique and how knowledge can be transferred in these structures.This literature review is meant to integrate various studies to make a clear picture of what makes the transfer of knowledge successful in-between partners of strategic alliance by reviewing determinants of knowledge transfer, particularities of alliances and possible strategies to follow in order to achieve the transfer.Problem statementThe problem indication brings us to delimitate the following area of researchSuccessful knowledge transfer in a strategic allianceResearch QuestionsSince knowledge becomes an essential asset, and its manipulation might have strong impact on the wellbeing and performance of the firm, it is interesting to investigate the knowledge transfer. Our inquiry will be done by first looking at what is knowledge and its different kinds. Then the models of knowledge transfer (in general) will be considered to see how knowledge is shared, finishing with the factors that can impact positively or negatively (barriers) on this process, this includes the soft issues sited previously.Research question 1 What are the key determinants in the process of knowledge transfer?Strategic alliances are often used by firms to transfer knowledge. Several studies might convey the idea that alliances is the most appropriate form of cooperation in order to transfer knowledge, that is why in the second research question we are going to di scuss characteristics and particularities of alliances that contribute to build a solid ground for knowledge transfer.Research question 2 What characteristics and particularities of the strategic alliance might shape the process of knowledge transfer in this form of cooperation?Perhaps the most practical issue for organizations involved in the process of knowledge transfer within a strategic alliance is the one that deals with practices to implement and strategies to follow for both partners. Therefore the third research question will deal with possible behavior and ways of doing that can facilitate the knowledge transfer within a strategic alliance.Research question3 What strategies and behavior could the parties of the strategic alliance adopt(implement) to enhance the transfer of knowledge and cope with the difficulties alliance might face?Research methodsThis is a descriptive research that will be done in the form of literature review. The data sources are the existing academic literature in the field of management, strategy and organization science. The literature includes top journals such as Journal of Management Studies, Strategic Management Journal, Knowledge and Process Management, Academy of Management JournalStructure of the thesisIn the second chapter the investigation will be done in order to gain knowledge of what could be the determinants of the knowledge transfer in general (without considering the context of the strategic alliances). To do this, first of all, knowledge and its different kinds have to be defined. Following that the review of the literature about the process of knowledge transfer itself will be made. Chapter 2 will end with the review of possible factors that can affect the process by whether contributing to its success or by creating barriers to it.In the third chapter we are going to take a closer look on the strategic alliances. Following the definition, the discussion will pursue in order to understand why certain researche rs think that strategic alliances are the most appropriate form of collaboration between firms for the process of knowledge transfer. Moreover, in this chapter we are going to look if certain characteristics of the alliance can ameliorate the transfer (i.e. firms similarities, orientation, strategy, resources).The last research question will be answered in the fourth chapter by examining the possible strategies and behaviors that companies involved in the alliance could undertake to enable a successful knowledge transfer, while they might face several challenges.At the end, conclusions will summarize this literature review bringing up possible questions for future discussion and useful recommendations about knowledge transfer within a strategic alliance.Chapter 2 The determinants in the process of knowledge transfer1/ What is knowledgeIn general knowledge is considered to be gained by observation, study and experiences. It is the mixture of values, context information, expert insigh t (Davenport and Prusak, 1998) that resides within the person. It can be accumulated and subjected to improvements unlimited number of times.It is difficult to distinguish knowledge in itself from data and from information. Knowledge is neither of these two. Data results from transactions and information is derived from data. Fransman (1998) clearly underlines the fact that knowledge is indeed processed information. In this sense it is also possible to say that knowledge is socially constructed (Pentland 1995) individuals produce knowledge by processing information through their intellect. They act on knowledge by their actions and going through experiences, meanwhile their perspectives and insights change creating the opportunity to proceed differently in new situations, when new sets of information are available (Quinn et al. 1998 Weick 1995).2/ Types of knowledgeAnother approach to introduce knowledge would be to state its different kinds tacit and explicit. The observation of th e existence of the explicit knowledge goes back to Polanyi (1966). Later the number of terms used were substantially enlarged to formal, verbal knowledge (Corsini, 1987), declarative knowledge (Kogut and Zander, 1992), theoretical kind of knowledge (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995), articulated or articulable knowledge (Hedlund, 1994 Winter, 1987), a know-why knowledge (Sanchez 1997).To Polanyi (1966) explicit knowledge is easily subjected to codification in a formal language (can be stated or written down). Winter (1987, p. 171) agrees on that definition by saying that this type of knowledge can be communicated from its possessor to another person in symbolic form and the recipient of the communication becomes as much in the know as the originator. Sobol and Lei (1994) identified two ways in which one can think about explicit knowledge. The first one in terms of communicability it is easily written down, encoded, explained, or understood (Sobol and Lei, 1994, p. 170). Its also possible to think about this kind of knowledge in terms of possession such knowledge is not specific or idiosyncratic to the firm or person possessing it (p. 170).Perhaps for this research the most interesting type of knowledge is the tacit knowledge because it is the one that largely contributes to competitive advantage of the firm. In fact, it was determined by several scholars (Delios and Beamish, 2001 Fang et al., 2007 Pisano, 1994) that tacit (as well as complex and specific) knowledge brings organizations to better-quality performance if its transfer was successfully accomplished. Also it is the type of knowledge that is considered to bring substantial competitive advantage by several academics (Nonaka, 1991 Grant, 1993 Spender, 1993).Polanyi (1966) wrote that tacit knowledge is non-verbalizable, intuitive and unarticulated. Consequently it is hard to replicate and share. Deeper understanding was brought by Nonaka (1994) and (Sternberg, 1994) who both support the fact that tacit knowledg e is context-specific it is a knowledge typically acquired on the job or in the situation where it is used (Sternberg, 1994, p. 28). Nonaka (1994) as other researchers also wrote that tacit knowledge is personal (Sanchez 1997), difficult to articulate, and highly linked with action (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995).Therefore, on the one hand tacit knowledge is very difficult to transfer but on the other hand this same characteristic makes it being a critical and strategic resource of the firm and its competitive advantage, because competitors can hardly replicate it (Grant,1993 Sobal and Lei, 1994).3/ Models How to transmit knowledgeBefore getting to discussion in which the transfer of knowledge involves strategic alliances, it is useful to look at the process itself. Several models attempt to explain the basics of knowledge transfer. Some of them identify key elements that play a role this process, other present stages and steps, finally some conditions are also acknowledged.In order to u nderstand how knowledge is transferred it is possible to first look at the definitions in cognitive psychology. At the individual level, the transfer was defined as how knowledge acquired in one situation applies (or fails to apply) to another by Singley and Anderson (1989).The transfer of knowledge in the organizational context also involves transfer at the individual level because the evolution of knowledge merely occurs when individuals express the will to share their experiences and insights with others (Davenport and Prusak, 1998 Kim and Mauborgne, 1998). This movement of knowledge through various levels of organization from individual, through group, up to organizational was identified by Nonaka (1994) as the concept of spiral of knowledge creation. The same process as on individual level occurs also at other levels such as group, department, division Here the transfer of knowledge is the process in which knowledge and experience of one unit (company, group or department) affe cts another. Szulanski (2000, p.10) supports this vision Knowledge transfer is seen as a process in which an organization recreates and maintains a complex, causally ambiguous set of routines (i.e. knowledge and experiences) in a new setting (i.e. another company, department, division).Knowledge transfer can be regarded as process which is composed of basic elements. Szulanski (2000) identified them as source, channel, message, recipient, and context. Obviously, source is the unit from which the message (knowledge) will flow to the recipient by the channel and the whole process will be considered in a particular organizational context which can be fertile (facilitates knowledge transfer) or barren (problems occur with transfer).In the same research he explained several stages of the process of knowledge transfer. The process usually starts by the initiation. Then comes the implementation phase divided into several stages the initial implementation effort, the ramp-up to satisfactory performance, and subsequent follow-through and evaluation efforts to integrate the practice with other practices of the recipient (Szulanski 2000, p.12)Furthermore, ODell and Grayson (1998) elaborated six steps in the knowledge transfer. Primary the identification of important knowledge is necessary. From this point on it is essential to collect the knowledge systematically and then organize the knowledge. When knowledge has been organized it can be shared (transferred), but before the final stage of usage of knowledge to solve problems, it has to be adapted.A number of conditions of knowledge transfer were presented by Grant and Baden-Fuller (2000). There are three main conditions of knowledge transfer. Firstly, the transmitters knowledge must be capable of being expressed in a communicable form. It is effortlessly done with explicit knowledge, however tacit knowledge has to be made explicit with the help of an expert system or be shared trough process of observation and imitation (p.122). What is more, transferred knowledge must be understandable to the source and the recipient. Therefore both have to use common knowledge which can be expressed in terms of the same language, information technology skills and culture. Finally, the new knowledge transferred from the source to recipient must be capable of aggregation which means that it would be possible to add to already existing knowledge.4/What factors can influence the transfer of knowledge (positive and negative)Several features may play a substantial role in the process of knowledge transfer. When looking at the literature the most obvious in terms of determinants of knowledge transfer, might be the type of knowledge that is transferred.Explicit knowledge is easy to codify and to transfer. Conversely, a large number of studies, like Grant (1996), report the negative influence of knowledge tacitness on its transfer. In general it is considered that tacit knowledge is very difficult to share because of the complexity of its codification (Reed and DeFillippi, 1990) and organizational embeddedness (Kogut and Zander 1992) and that it contributes to creating ambiguity which can most of the times create barriers to the process of transfer. Simonin (1999, 2004) proposed a model in which knowledge tacitness indirectly influences knowledge transfer through ambiguity it nevertheless specifies the importance of knowledge tacitness as critical factor which makes knowledge transfer difficult.Academics like Grant (1996), Reed and DeFillippi (1990) and Zander and Kogut (1995) raise the issue of complexity of knowledge. Complexity may appear for example when different kinds of skills and wide range of knowledge (individual, team-based experiences, technologies) have to be shared. The more complex the knowledge, the more difficult it is to share.Reed and DeFillippi (1990) also considered the influence of the specificity on knowledge transfer. The term refers to knowledge which is related only to cer tain kind of transaction relations. Williamson (1999) defined specificity as the ease with which an asset can be redeployed to alternative uses and by alternative users without loss of productive value.From these studies it is now clear that tacitness, complexity and specificity impedes to knowledge transfer by creating ambiguity. According to Simonin (1999) tacitness has the greatest influence in this relationship, followed by specificity, which is much less significant and finally complexity.It seems that culture and willingness to share, elements often cited as factors that can influence knowledge transfer, are interrelated. Willingness to share is one of the key determinants of knowledge transfer this means that one must be willing to share and the other one to receive. It is not always easy to let go from knowledge. As Bernstein (2000) suggests that willingness to share is influenced by identity because an individual might have a psychological ownership over the knowledge he po ssesses. Furthermore, Alavi and Leidner (1999) made a good remark about the fact that it will be difficult for organizations to share knowledge and integrate knowledge-based systems without primary having the information sharing culture (i.e. valuing information sharing). Davenport (1997) describes this as open versus closed culture.Very similar to the concept of willingness to share, Szulanski (1996, p.12) argued that lack of motivation also has to be considered as one of the barriers to the process of knowledge transfer because it may result in procrastination, passivity, feigned acceptance, sabotage, or outright rejection in the implementation and use of new knowledge.Szulanski (1996) also noticed another barrier of knowledge transfer. Absorptive capacity is one of the very well known elements that influence the transfer of knowledge. It is the ability to exploit outside sources of knowledge (Cohen Levinthal, 1990, p. 128) and integrate it by replacing old practices by new ones, which is not always effortless (Glaser, Abelson, Garrison, 1983).Chapter 3 Particularities of strategic alliances shaping the process of knowledge transferCombining resources is the logical response to the harshness of nowadays competition. Other factors as the increase in customers expectations and the less strict regulatory barriers also led companies to form alliances (Gomes-Casseres 1994 Harrigan 1988 Kogut 1988 Nielsen 1988).However these are not the only possibilities alliances are able to provide. Alliances can be considered as one of the means for knowledge gaining and sharing, besides mergers and acquisitions. According to Inkpen (2000) there exist several possibilities for companies to transfer and gain knowledge internalization within the firm, market contracts, and relational contracts. He considers individual strategic alliances as relational contracts that permit knowledge acquisition and transfer, suitable in the context where knowledge is complex and hard to codify , whereas market based transfers are considered to be more efficient for product related (embodied) knowledge. Number of other researchers also supported the fact that alliances permit firms to share knowledge and ultimately to learn from the partners (Grant, 1996 Hamel, 1991 Khanna et al., 1998 Kogut, 1998). Inkpen (2000, p.1019) wrote Through the shared execution of the alliance task, mutual interdependence and problem solving, and observation of alliance activities and outcomes, firms can learn from their partners.1/ Definition strategic allianceIn the literature it is possible to find several key characteristics of an alliance. An alliance is usually created between two or more firms that cooperate together in order to achieve some strategic objective, create value that they would not be able to achieve on their own (Borys and Jemison, 1989) and pursue a set of goals (Harrigan 1988 Yoshino and Rangan 1995). Partners are complementary and contribute with their resources and capab ilities (Teece, 1992) they are involved in a range of interdependent activities (Contractor and Lorange 19882002) and share benefits and risks of the alliance. Dussauge et al. (2000, p.99) described an alliance between two Knowledge Based Enterprises as an arrangement between two or more independent companies that choose to carry out a project or operate in a specific business area by co-coordinating the necessary skills and resources jointly rather than either operating alone or merging their operations.Some academics consider alliances to be arrangements in which firms establish exchange relationship without joint ownership being considered as a form of alliance (Dickson Weaver, 1997) others consider equity alliances such as joint ventures, also be a form of alliance (Mowery et al. 1996). In this research all possible forms of alliances are considered a non-equity alliance (co-operation without creation of new organization or exchange of equity) an equity alliance (unilateral or bilateral equity holding among partners without creation of the a new firm) a joint venture (new firm is created, involving joint resources, where partners share ownership and control) 2/ Why strategic alliance can be considered (by certain researchers) the most appropriate form of collaboration for knowledge transfer?Accordingly, of all approaches to knowledge imitability between a knowledge holder and a knowledge seeker, strategic alliances constitute perhaps the most adequate, but nevertheless challenging vehicle for internalizing the others competency Simonin (1999, 595).There are several forms of interorganizational exchange that enable firms to protect valuable resources including mergers and acquisitions, licensing and alliances (Coff, 1997). There are two kinds of knowledge explicit and tacit (Polanyi, 1966), therefore if two firms share knowledge, it will be explicit explicit, explicit tacit or tacit tacit. Licensing can provide a solution for the first two combinations. Yet, it is very hard to gain competitive advantage with explicit knowledge resources, because they might be sold to other companies. By contrast, competitive advantage occurs when tacit knowledge assets are combined, provided their ambiguity, complexity and inimitability (Barney 1991 Dierickx and Cool 1989). This is done through alliances or mergers and acquisitions.Conventional sale contracts, markets, mergers and acquisitions seem to be less attractive structures for knowledge transfer in comparison with alliances. Coff (1997) found that it is not easy to evaluate the value of knowledge based resources, primary because of their tacitness (Mowery, 1983 Pisano, 1990). Firms that want to acquire new knowledge will have to face uncertainty concerning its characteristics and difficulties to determine its quality and to be certain of the transferability of the knowledge held by another firm. Some researchers raise a concern about the fact that in some cases the firm that will acquire k nowledge is not certain to be able to deploy it (Flamholtz and Coff 1994 Haspeslagh and Jemison 1991 Polanyi 1966 Zander and Kogut 1995). In this sense, alliance permits to mitigate risks of bad investments.The indigestibility problem of MA, quite the opposite of alliances, was discussed by several academics (Hennart and Reddy, 1997 Inkpen and Beamish, 1997 Dunning, 1997). Indigestible assets are those who come with valuable assets during the transaction (Nonaka 1994). In fact, for some of these assets (in this case knowledge) the aftermarket may not exist after the acquisition. Within an alliance the company does not have to pay for digestion of non-valuable assets and has access to important knowledge resources held by the partner.Reid, Bussiere, Greenaway 2001 (alliance formation issues)Grant and Baden-Fuller (2004) identified some advantages of alliances related to knowledge like possibility to achieve early-mover advantage and risk spreading.Early-mover advantage signifies reco mbining knowledge into innovative products in a quickly advancing knowledge environment. More precisely, this means to quickly identify, access, and integrate across new knowledge combinations. In this situation strategic alliances enable company to quickly access knowledge necessary for introduction of new products to market. Grant and Baden-Fuller (2004) wrote The greater the benefits of early-mover advantage in technologically-dynamic environments, the greater the propensity for firms to establish interfirm collaborative arrangements in order to access new knowledge.A risk exists in terms that sometimes a company might be uncertain about the future knowledge requirements and knowledge acquisition and integration takes time, the investments are risky (Grant and Baden-Fuller, 2004) The greater the uncertainty as to the future knowledge requirements of a firms product range, the greater its propensity to engage in interfirm collaborations as a means of accessing and integrating addi tional knowledge. Powell (1987) also noticed that alliance formation diminishes the risk that knowledge will dissipate quickly.3/ Which characteristics and capabilities of alliance partners can ameliorate the transfer of knowledge?Before considering the transfer of knowledge, it is important to underline, that both partners of an alliance are expected to possess valuable knowledge (Eisenhardt and Schoonhoven 1996). Ahuja (2000) considered such knowledge possession as opportunity for linkage-formation. He also identified three categories of valuable knowledge assets that are technical capital (capability to create new products, technology and processes), commercial capital (supporting resources) and social capital (useful networks).Throughout the literature it is possible to distinguish some capabilities that are important for proper functioning of the knowledge based alliance absorptive capacity, combinative capability, experience with alliances, suitable design for knowledge exchan ge, and choice of alliance structure.In numerous studies, absorptive capacity plays an essential role in the process of knowledge transfer and learning within strategic alliances (Lane and Lubatkin, 1998). Van den Bosch et al. (1999) wrote that it combined the evaluation, acquisition integration and commercial utilization of knowledge obtained from sources exogenous to the firm. Absorptive capacity is susceptible to evolve and augment through activity (Barringer and Harrison, 2000) because it is historical and path dependent in nature as was defined by Cohen and Levinthal (1990). Grant (1996) recognized that knowledge absorption capability can be influenced by the degree to which the expert knowledge held by organizational members is utilized the width of specialized knowledge required from firm members the degree to which a capability can access additional knowledge and reconfigure existing knowledge.Defined by Kogut and Zander (1992) combinative capability refers to the ability of the parties of an alliance to extend, interpret, apply, current and acquired knowledge with the goal of generating new applications from existing knowledge base.Collaborative know-how affects firms ability to form a successful partnership and create a solid ground for knowledge transfer. Simonin (1997) refers to it as to ability to institutionalize organizational routines as a result of previous experiences. Pennings et al. (1994) supports that firms tend to reproduce the behavior from their past experiences. When firms have previous experiences of collaboration within alliance, they acquire knowledge that helps them to effectively design future alliances (Lyles, 1988) and develop superior capabilities at managing particular organizational forms such as alliances (Kale et al., 2002, p. 748). This experience permits avoiding various difficulties (Doz, 1996 Powell et al., 1996).Teece (2000) stressed the importance of the design of the firm to enhance performance and knowledge sharing . He identified distinctive characteristics of design in successful firms. Among these, entrepreneurial orientation and flexibility expressed in rapid responses to ephemeral market opportunities flexible boundaries (outsourcing and alliances). They were also characterized by their non-bureaucratic decision making and rapid internal knowledge sharing owing to the not really strict hierarchies.The choice of alliance structure should be determined considering the perspective of gaining valuable resources (knowledge) from a partner without losing its own (Das and Teng, 2000).Different views exist as to effectiveness of equity joint venture form of alliance for successful knowledge transfer. Several researchers find that this form is the most suitable for the transfer of tacit knowledge and complex capabilities (Kogut, 1988, Mowery et al., 1996). However, Das and Teng (2000) think that this structure is too risky for partnership based on knowledge-based contribution, and that it is more suitable for contributing property-based resources.Inkpen (2002) identifies five categories of antecedents of alliance learning learning partner characteristics teaching partner characteristics knowledge characteristics relationship factors and alliance form. Two key characteristics of the learning partner, identified by Nielsen and Nielsen (2009), are important, namely collaborative know-how (same as previous experience of alliances) and knowledge protectiveness (Simonin, 1997, 1999). Protectiveness matches the concept of openness and the degree to which partners are protective of their knowledge. How well do the support the risk of knowledge leakage or spillover (Inkpen, 2000).Chapter 4 potential strategies and behavior that parties of the strategic alliance might adopt to enhance the transfer of knowledge and to cope with difficulties alliances might faceStrategic alliances might face a number of difficulties. The first thing that comes out from the numerous literature on strateg ic alliance and knowledge sharing, is the fear of knowledge spillovers, that are assumed to be inevitable consequence of alliance involvement, despite the efforts companies make in order to protect their valuable knowledge assets (Inkpen, 2000). Therefore, it immediately comes to the issue of trust. In the late 90 a discussion was raised about the possibility that some firms use strategic alliance as a Trojan Horse in order to steal knowledge from its partners. This was especially thought about Japanese partners. However empirical studies do not find support for this hypothesis (Hennart et al. 1999 Mowery 1996).The literature elaborates on so called learning races (Khanna et al. 1998) when one partner (acts opportunistically) tries to gain more knowledge in the alliance exchange, than he shares. Hamel (1991, 86) described alliances as transitional devices where the primary objective was the internalization of partner skills. This creates a significant challenge for strategic allianc e. To deal with with this issue, norms and systems can be designed functional rules can be developed to structure partner engagement (Qulin, 1997). When little trust is involved, this may lead to knowledge protectiveness from one or both of the partners. Nielsen and Nielsen (2009) wrote that protectiveness not only may lead to uncertainty and conflict but it also reduces the amount of information exchanged.

Research on Effects of Sibling Birth on Jealousy

Research on Effects of Sibling Birth on JealousyThe Birth of a Sibling companion or Competition?Samantha A. SangSibling births that develop a rest period of nurturance and conflict can provide numerous hearing opportunities for newfangled children (Volling, McElwain, Miller, 2002). For instance, children can learn separates surveys, learn different strategies to resolve conflict, as well as learn to regulate their own emotions. Specifically, younger sibs who experience a equilibrium of nurturance and conflict in their sib bloods have been found to be much complaisantly skilled and have more positive peer kinships compared with children who lack the sib experience (Volling et al., 2002).Thus, it is not the absence of conflict rather how conflict is resolved that benefits the quality of a sibling race. Sibling conflict refers to the unique inter someoneal dyadic dynamics of sibling fundamental fundamental interactions, which may be motivated by, but not synonymo us with sibling green-eyed monster (Volling et. al., 2002). It is well-known that parents cannot attend and respond to both childrens call for at all times thus, green-eyed monster could very well be a normal, perhaps daily, experience for young children.Older siblings are often plan of as leaders, managers, and teachers of their younger siblings during critical periods of development (e.g., preschool, middle- childhood Kolak, Volling, 2011). Moreover, older siblings are the more dominant person in the sibling relationship and can exert more influence on the sibling relationship throughout childhood. Previous seek has shown that older siblings behavior toward their younger siblings is more stable from preschool through middle childhood than younger siblings behavior toward their older siblings (Kolak, Volling, 2011). This st top executive, along with the more dominant role of older siblings, may explain why older siblings jealousy reactions are stronger predictors of the sibl ing relationship quality many years later (Kolak, Volling, 2011).Sibling JealousyJealousy is a complex cordial emotion. Complex because it is not simply a single emotional expression, but rather a patterned response of emotional affect, behavior, and cognitive appraisal (Volling, Yu, Gonzalez, Kennedy, Rosenberg, Oh, 2014). Intense debates have occurred among scholars in regards to the distinction amongst jealousy and envy whether jealousy is a simple, complex, or blended emotion and whether it is ca apply by threats to self-esteem or threats to a valued relationship (White and Mullen, 1989). Although different perspective exist, it is pivotal to understand that jealousy cannot be defined nor understood without fictitious character to a social context (Volling, McElwain, Miller, 2002).Specifically, jealousy occurs in the context of a social triangle (White and Mullen, 1989). There are three dyadic relationships within the triangle in addition to the triadic relationship system (a) the relationship between the jealous item-by-item and the beloved, (b) the relationship between the beloved and the rival, and (c) the relationship between the jealous individual and the rival (White Mullen, 1989). In order to elicit jealousy, the relationship between the jealous person and the beloved must be a valued close relationship (e.g., induce-child). Furthermore, jealousy is elicited by the real or perceived loss of this relationship to a rival. It is not simply the loss of love that elicits jealousy it is the loss of attention from the beloved to a rival (White Mullen, 1989).Hupka (1984) has shown that individuals in jealousy eliciting situations can olfactory perception a range of emotions including idolize, anger, or even relief, depending on the individuals stress of attention with respect to the social triangle. For example, if individuals focus on the loss of the relationship, sadness may be reported whereas, if individuals focus on the betrayal of their b eloved, anger may be reported and lastly, if individuals focus on being left alone, anxiety or fear may be reported (Hupka, 1984).Birth of a Sibling Elicits Sibling JealousyThe birth of a sibling can be a trying life event for young children consequently, firstborn children are likely to experience jealousy at the arrival of their infant sibling (Volling et. al., 2014). Past research indicates that young children are sensitive to the loss of attention to another. First, toddler and preschool children were aware of the interactions occurring between their mother and their sibling and often times, would try to disrupt the ongoing interaction (Dunn, 1988). Second, studies that address childhood jealousy have demonstrated that children as young as 1 year of age were sensitive to maternal attention directed toward an infant-size doll, a newborn infant or an unfamiliar peer (Volling et. al., 2002). So, it is not surprising that young children are aware of the loss of attention when a par ent turns his or her attention from them and interacts with their infant sibling and this awareness elicits jealousy (Volling et. al., 2002).Jealousy can differ for individuals depending on their cognitive appraisal of the jealousy eliciting situation when they believe their relationship with their beloved is threatened by the rival (Kolak Volling, 2011). For instance, a child may appraise the infant sibling as a threat to their own mother-child relationship, smelling anxious, and interfere in the motherinfant interaction, or a child may appraise their mother as inaccessible, feel sadness, and withdraw from the mother-infant interaction.The firstborns jealousy toward their infant sibling can impact their sibling relationship quality later in development. chelarens initial reactions three weeks after their siblings birth predicted their behavior with their mother and sibling at 14 months (Kendrick Dunn, 1982). For instance, children who were demanding and difficult shortly after t heir siblings birth protested the mothersibling interaction more compared to children who positively approached their infant sibling (Kendrick Dunn, 1982). Moreover, children who were initially withdrawn were more likely to develop curt sibling relationships over time (Kendrick Dunn, 1982). fastener as a Potential ModeratorThe Strange Situation (SS) is a videotaped laboratory based procedure that consists of seven three-minute episodes including two parentchild separations and reunions (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, Wall, 1978). Individual differences in infants attachment relationships can be classified as secure or insecure. Attachment classifications are based on the childs ability to balance proximity and exploration and to obtain comfort when distressed from their mother (Ainsworth et. al., 1978). Not only do physical separations from mothers in the SS activate attachment behaviors, but so too does the childs appraisal of their mothers accessibility when caring for their infan t sibling.The birth of a sibling may create disruptions in the relationship between the mother and her firstborn child that can lead to instability in their attachment relationship (Touris, Kromelow, Harding, 1995). Bowlby (1969) acknowledged that for most young children, the continent sight of mother holding another baby in her arms is enough to elicit strong attachment behavior. So, it is understandable that many of the behaviors associated with jealousy (e.g., clinging, touching, proximity seeking, and distress) are also attachment behaviors (Volling et. al., 2014). From an attachment perspective, children who have a secure attachment to their mother should explore freely, even when their mother is interacting with their infant sibling. They may monitor their mothers whereabouts or the mother-infant interactions, but they should not disrupt the interaction. Whereas, insecurely devoted children will cry and protest in response to their mothers interactions with their infant sib ling. They will stay in close proximity to their mother and may even physically interfere with the mother-infant interactions (Volling et. al., 2014). If witnessing the motherinfant interaction adequately engages attachment behaviors, then individual differences in childrens jealousy may reflect their internal working models of their attachment relationship with their mothers.The quality of sibling interaction has been related to the mother-child attachment relationship. Children who were insecurely attached to their mothers at 12 months of age were more aggressive in their conflicts with their younger sibling when they were 6-years-old (Volling et. al., 2014). On the other hand, Teti and Ablard (1989) found that more secure preschoolers were significantly more likely to react to their younger siblings distress than less securely attached preschoolers. emotion Regulation as a Potential ModeratorEarly attachment relationships play a primary role in the development of young childrens emotion regulation development (Volling, 2001). Children whose mothers are sensitive and consistent to their childrens ask not only develop secure attachments to their mothers, but are also idea to develop a greater capacity to share affect, to enjoy social interactions, to maintain organized behavior during an emotionally arousing event, and to display empathy for others (Volling, 2001). In contrast, children whose emotional needs are repeatedly rejected by their mothers are more likely to develop insecure attachments and are also more likely to develop poor regulatory strategies whereby they minimize attention to their attachment relationship and minimize their emotional expressiveness (Volling, 2001). These children may become physiologically aroused in the face of stress, but may also remain expressionless so that they do not risk further rejection and anger on the part of the mother (Volling, 2001).Emotion regulation consists of the foreign and intrinsic processes responsibl e for monitoring, evaluating, and modifying emotional reactions, especially their intensive and temporal features, to accomplish ones goals (Thompson, 1994). Even though this definition emphasizes both internal and external processes, Campos and colleagues (1994) revealed that past research that fancys emotion regulation focuses on the internal processes and rarely considers the external factors that may contribute to emotion regulation. Studies investigating the process of emotion regulation should include the social context that elicited the need for regulation in the first place and that specifies the rules of proper conduct (Campos, 1994). Specifically because jealousy cannot be fully understood without reference to the social context, it is pivotal to examine childrens emotion regulation skills as a potential moderator between the birth of a sibling and firstborns feelings of jealousy.Young children have several regulatory strategies that can be utilized in jealousy eliciting situations. Three possible regulatory strategies that might be used by toddler and preschool siblings when confronted with jealousy are (a) to interfere with the interaction between their mother and sibling, (b) to direct anger toward either their mother or sibling, and/or (c) to focus attention on alternative pleasurable activities (i.e., play Volling et. al., 2014). Children who successfully cope to distress in jealousy eliciting situations engage in self-focused, exploratory play date monitoring the mother-infant interaction rather than protesting or physically interfering (Volling et. al., 2014).Firstborn children who were highly dysregulated during jealousy eliciting situations are at an increased risk for expressing more interdict affect. Furthermore, childrens inability to regulate their jealousy may be suggestive of poor emotion regulation skills, which may, in turn, be detrimental to sibling relationship quality (Kolak Voling, 2011). In contrast, firstborn children who a re better regulated (i.e. better able to regulate their jealousy) appear to have the essential emotion regulation skills for prosecute positively with their siblings (Kolak Voling, 2011).Childrens ability to regulate emotions during jealousy eliciting situations is a critical component for successful relationships with their sibling (Kolak Voling, 2011). But, little is known about childrens ability to regulate emotions during jealousy eliciting situations and its impact on the quality of the sibling relationship later in development. The only support is from Kolak and Volling (2011) that found that jealousy and dysregulation is related to more troubled sibling interactions two years later.The Current StudyThe current study is a longitudinal design that will address three aims (a) to examine if the birth of a sibling elicits jealousy in the firstborn child, (b) to examine if the firstborns jealousy of their infant sibling is related to their sibling relationship quality five years later, and finally, (c) to examine if the firstborns attachment and emotion regulation moderates the relationship between the birth of a sibling and jealousy (Figure 1). Prior research on the birth of a sibling has described some children as clingy, anxious-withdrawn, or oppositional after the birth (Volling et. al., 2014), so we hypothesized that (a) children who have a secure attachment with their mother before the birth of their sibling will not experience as much jealousy as insecurely attached children, and (b) children who demonstrate better emotion regulation skills will not experience as much jealousy as less emotionally regulated children. due(p) to individual differences, different patterns of jealousy and its impact on sibling relationship quality will emerge five years later.ReferencesAinsworth, M.D.S., Blehar, M.C., Waters, E., Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment A mental study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ Erlbaum.Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and los s Vol. 1. Attachment. New York, NY Basic Books.Buist, K. L., Paalman, C. H., Branje, S. J. T., Dekovi, M., Reitz, E., Verhoeven, M., Meeus, W. H. J., Koot, H. M, Hale,William W., I.,II. (2014). Longitudinal effects of sibling relationship quality on adolescent chore behavior A cross-ethnic comparison.Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology,20(2), 266-275. insidehttp//dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0033675Campos, J., Mumme, D. L., Kermoian, R., Campos, R.(1994). Commentary A functionalist perspective on the nature of emotion. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2-3, Serial No. 240).Dunn, J. (1988). The beginnings of social understanding. Cambridge, MA Harvard University Press.Hupka, R. B. (1984). Jealousy Compound emotion or label for a particular situation? Motivation and Emotion, 8, 141-155.Kendrick, C., Dunn, J. (1982). Protest or pleasure? The response of first-born children to interactions between their mothers and infant siblings. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 23, 117-129.Kolak, A. M., Volling, B. L. (2011). Sibling jealousy in early childhood longitudinal links to sibling relationship quality. Infant Child Development, 20(2), 213-226. doi10.1002/icd.690Teti, D. M., Ablard, K. E. (1989). Security of attachment and infantsibling relationships A laboratory study. Child Development, 60, 15191528. doi10.2307/1130940Thompson, R. A. (1994). Emotion regulation A theme in search of definition. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 59(2-3, Serial No. 240).Touris, M., Kromelow, S., Harding, C. (1995). Mother-firstborn attachment and the birth of a sibling.American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,65(2), 293-297. doihttp//dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0079614Volling, B. L. (2001). Early attachment relationships as predictors of preschool childrens emotion regulation with a distressed sibling.Early Education and Development,12(2), 185-207. doihttp//dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15566935eed1202_2Volling, B. L., Yu, T., Gonz alez, R., Kennedy, D. E., Rosenberg, L., Oh, W. (2014). Childrens responses to motherinfant and fatherinfant interaction with a baby sibling Jealousy or joy?Journal of Family Psychology,28(5), 634-644. doihttp//dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0037811Volling, B. L., Yu, T., Gonzalez, R., Kennedy, D. E., Rosenberg, L., Oh, W. (2014). Childrens responses to motherinfant and fatherinfant interaction with a baby sibling Jealousy or joy?Journal of Family Psychology,28(5), 634-644. doihttp//dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0037811White, G. L., Mullen, P. E. (1989). Jealousy Theory, research, and clinical strategies. New York Guilford Press.Figure 1.

We Should Send Our Parents To Retirement Homes

We Should Send Our Parents To Retirement HomesIn ancient time, filial theology is regarded as one of the uprightnesss to be held above all else a respect for the parents and ancestors, which means to be candid to ones parents, to take occupy of ones parents and be definitely manipulable to their parents in any case and do whatever their parents require. Parents have the supreme control over their children in traditional family. Filial piety has long been the virtue of the Chinese race. As time goes by, things have changed a lot. Parents power has weakened a lot.Recently the article near(a) Son Mother Wants To Be A Dog in Your Home was widely spread among netizens in Q-zones, blogs and forums (na.2010). When I first read this article, I could non withdraw my tears. I believe anyone with conscience who has read it will be deeply moved and feels sorrow for the elderly women. It is high time that we considered the old- come on support in our unc step forwardh. I think we shou ld send our parents to retreat kinsfolks in the future.I divide my argumentation into two parts. The first part is about wad in rural areas and the second part is about good deal in urban center.Part IPoint 1According to Wang (2008), The traditional family structure has collapsed and is replaced by one-child family pattern(P.28). As the number of children reduce , the old-age support situation becomes more serious for the rural wad. It is predicted that in the future every youngish people has two to four old people to support (Qin,J,2009,P32). It stinker be passing difficult for these rural people with low incomes to sustain so many old. In order to relieve the pressure, it will be a good woof to send old people to the nursing foundation to pass their old age. Besides, it is also the governments responsibility to plan the budget for old-age support to help those poor young people. Thus, we can at least guarantee the old peoples basic living needs if we send our parents t o a loneliness home. We get someone to take care of them in the nursing home. When they are hungry, they have something to eat. When it is too cold or too hot, they have clothes to wear. When it rains or heats, they have rooms to shelter. When they are ill, they can turn to the doctor in time. The most important thing is that they can turn to someone to help when an emergency happens. In this way, the tragedy like Dear Son Mother Wants To Be A Dog in Your Home will never happen again.Point 2 In rural areas, the fate to send parents to a nursing home seems not bad(p)er since old people in the countryside lead a much more difficult life than city people. Old people are often ignored or maltreated by their children in rural areas because they can not earn any coin or lead any more. Much of the family income is spent on the young children composition very little even no money on the old people. According to Fan (2010) There is a shocking fact that the elderly suicide in rural area s are among the highest reported in any country in mainland China(P.84). It can not be denied that the rural elderly suicide has much to do with the ignorance and maltreatment of old people. To many old people, they had to stand the ill-treatment. Because they beileve house servant shame should not be made public. So to send old people to a retirement home can be a good way to protect their rights.Point 3 Another reason for sending rural old people to nursing home is that they can meet, play with people of the same age and feel less lonely. Nowadays young people go to work in downtown and bring their children together. They are busy with their work and seldom return home to see their parents. Many old people get together from loneliness most of the time at home. So why not send the parents to a retirement home? In the retirement home, they can express and share opinions with other old people. It can be much favorable for them to play chess, mah-jong and do sports together. Part II Point 1Like rural old people, those who live in the city slao suffer from loneliness. As Cai (2009) has pointed out that China is still a developing country, the advanced population aging has declined the economy development and caused further challenge to the under-funded pension system(P54). To be a mid-eighties generation, we are under great stress. In order to survive in the city, we have to work hard to give in off home loan, car loan, pay for food, drinks, clothes, water bill, electric charge childrens education and old-age support. We are busy with our work. We eat fast food,work extra hours come and go in a hurry. Life in the city is busy. Things changes rapidly. Little do we have time to spend with our family. Point 2The generation gaps between children and parents,grandchildren and grandparents are wide. Old people often hazard it difficult to catch up with the time, their children and grandchildren. For example, young children whitethorn find it interesting to search t he Internet and play on-line games at home on weekends while the old people would like to go out to chat with some acquaints. Its obvious that there are a lot of differences between old people and young people, such as their appetites, interests and values. These differences have caused much inconvenience for old people to live with children. Many old people in city suffer alienation and loneliness. It can be wise to send parents to a retirement home where they can find people of similar interest and hobbies. As people in the city generally worry little about their basic necessities, all they want is a light heart. With people of the common language, they can give to each other, get rid of worry, feel understood and more valued.Point 3Besides, the admit price continues to be high. It can be a great burdon for young people to purchase a larger house with special rooms provided for old people. As Luo Jiang (2009) state that the average housing space is completely 7.1 squaremeters in the city (P50). The intense housing shortage has become a common and outstanding issue. In this background, it can not be a snap off choice than to send parents to nursing home.ObjectionHowever, some people may argue that it is not in accordance with filial piety to send our parents to retirement homes. It may sound unreasonable if one just sees the superficial and doesnt go deeper. However, imagine that you leave your old parents helpless in the rural areas, will you be guilt? So why not send your parents to the downtown retirement home? It isnt it nice for them to be in a convenient place which may be closer to where you work? Just think about leaving your parents with no one to talk to in the box house and getting old gloomily, do you feel sorry for them? So why not bring changes to it and send your parents to the retirement home where they can find some companions and live a more meaningful life?The most important reason is that old people should learn to be independent. As Russell(n.d.) wroteA successful old age is easiest for those who have strong im person-to-person interests involving appropriate activities. And the best way to overcome death is to make ones interests gradually wider and more impersonal,until bit by bit the walls of the swelled head recede,and ones life becomes increasingly merged in the universal life.(P93)As Russell has pointed out that its important for old people to guard against clinging too much to youth in the hope of sucking vigor from its vitality. The nursing home can be a good place for old people to develop their own personal interests involving appropriate activities. Only when old people have strong wills can they enjoy a happy life no matter what difficulties they are set about with.ConclusionBecause we are busy making money to support the family and dont have time to take of them, and the unevitable differences between old people and young generation, and the high housing price and the unability to both buy houses and support the old, we have to send our parents to a retirement home in the future. This is not to say that sending our parents to the retirement home is the whole thing. Filial piety includes much more details, such as we can pay visits to them as often as possible, celebrate important fesitivals with them, think them when we can not come to see them. Its very important to give them spiritual support and comfort. If possible, we can take them to travel together.Above all ,its up to our parents whether to go to the nursing homes or not. We can not force our parents to go. Its very important that we communicate with our parents in time and we should let them understand our decisions.In the future, the nursing home may be constructed as pleasant as kindergartens so that we can send our parents there in the day and pick them as well as our children up at night. Of course, we need the governments large financial support to built quality retirement homes.

Racial Struggle in America Essay -- Ethnicity Immigration Papers

Racial Struggle in AmericaYes East and West and North and South, the Palm and the pine, the rod cell and the equator, the crescent and the cross - how the great Alchemist melts and fuses them with his purging flame Here shall they all unite to build the Republic of Man and the Kingdom of God. (Rereading America 535) The myth of the run pot, similarly to The American pipe dream i , brings a lot of immigrants to America hoping to find equality, freedom and opportunity. The promise of a new race in which individuals of all nations ar melted into one, and whose labors would change the world, eludes people all over the globe. The drama of becoming an American requires that immigrants take on a new identity, because they want to become as members of the community with all the rights, responsibilities, and opportunities that their fellow citizens have. The myth then falls flat on its face, because it lies when it says that all Americans are created equal. The melting pot ide al has often wrapped the reality of racial supremacy, constantly reminding us of race ii when we feel our differences becoming signs of inferiority, and as inferiors we are treated as subhuman. Thomas Jefferson as third professorship of the United States (1801-1809) recommended that all emancipated slaves should be sent out of the state to form separate colonies, and to prevent racial conflict as well as intermarriage with whites. While he believed in the Group Separatism relation, which in Models of American Ethnic Relations A Historical Perspective George M. Fredrickson explained as a self-governing community, President Ronald Regan declared himself color blind in matters of race. Neither a group separatism, nor a color-blind socie... ...eading America. Eds. Gary Colombo, Robert Cullen, and Bonnie Lisle. Boston Bedford/ St. Martins, 2001. 598-609.Cose, Ellis. Can a New Race Surmount Old Prejudices?Rereading America. Eds. Gary Colombo, Robert Cullen, and Bonnie Lisle. Boston Bedford/ St. Martins, 2001. 635-646.Lindholm, William C. Origins of the Old Order Amish. http//holycrosslivonia.org/amish/origin.htmiAmerican Dream the notion that anyone can succeed in America just now through hard work.iiRace population distinguished by genetic traitsiii politics of identification Henry Louis Gates Jr.s term to define our content to identify with others regardless of their differences. A Liberalism of Heart and Spineiv model minority Asian Americans were used as model minorities to other minorities to claim that the American Dream is alive.